UN Peacekeeping Operations

Introduction

United Nations Peacekeeping Operations are international operations established or authorised by the United Nations to help maintain or restore peace in situations affected by armed conflict.

Peacekeeping is one of the most important practical developments in the history of the United Nations. It has been used to:

• monitor ceasefires;
• separate conflicting forces;
• support peace agreements;
• protect civilians where mandated;
• facilitate political settlements;
• assist elections and institution-building;
• support disarmament and reintegration;
• create conditions for lasting peace.

A crucial point is that UN peacekeeping is not expressly provided for as a separate mechanism in the UN Charter. It developed largely through UN practice and interpretation of the Charter.

Meaning of UN Peacekeeping

UN peacekeeping may be understood as the deployment of an international UN presence, usually involving military, police and civilian personnel, to help parties to a conflict maintain or implement peace.

The basic idea is:

Armed Conflict

↓

Ceasefire / Peace Agreement

↓

UN Peacekeeping Operation

↓

Monitoring + Stabilisation + Political Support

↓

Peaceful Political Process

↓

Sustainable Peace

Nature of Peacekeeping

Peacekeeping is different from traditional military warfare.

A peacekeeping operation generally seeks to:

• maintain peace rather than wage war;
• facilitate implementation of agreements;
• create conditions for political settlement;
• reduce the possibility of renewed violence.

It is therefore primarily an international peace and security mechanism, rather than an independent military alliance.

Legal Basis of Peacekeeping

The UN Charter does not contain a chapter specifically titled “Peacekeeping.”

Peacekeeping developed through the practical powers and responsibilities of UN organs.

Relevant Charter provisions include:

• Article 1(1) – maintenance of international peace and security;
• Article 24 – primary responsibility of the Security Council;
• Article 25 – Members agree to carry out Security Council decisions;
• Chapter VI – peaceful settlement;
• Chapter VII – enforcement action;
• Article 29 – Security Council may establish subsidiary organs;
• Article 99 – Secretary-General’s role in matters threatening peace and security.

The “Chapter VI½” Concept

UN peacekeeping is sometimes informally described as operating under “Chapter VI½”.

This is not an actual Charter provision.

The expression reflects the idea that traditional peacekeeping falls somewhere between:

Chapter VI → Peaceful Settlement

and

Chapter VII → Enforcement

It is useful as a descriptive expression, but should not be presented as a formal legal chapter of the Charter.

Development of Peacekeeping

The first major UN peacekeeping operation is generally regarded as the:

United Nations Truce Supervision Organization (UNTSO)

Established in 1948 to monitor the ceasefire arrangements in the Middle East.

It demonstrated how the UN could deploy international personnel to monitor and support peace arrangements.

United Nations Emergency Force

The United Nations Emergency Force (UNEF I) was established in 1956 during the Suez Crisis.

It represented an important development in modern UN peacekeeping.

Basic Principles of Traditional Peacekeeping

Three principles are traditionally associated with UN peacekeeping:

Consent of the Parties

Peacekeeping traditionally operates with the consent of the principal parties to the conflict.

Impartiality

Peacekeepers must act impartially between the parties.

Impartiality does not mean indifference to violations of the mandate or to international law.

Non-Use of Force Except in Self-Defence and Defence of the Mandate

Traditional peacekeeping forces generally do not use force except:

• in self-defence;
• where necessary to defend their mandate, depending on the operation’s authorisation.

These principles have evolved with the development of robust peacekeeping and civilian-protection mandates.

Consent

Consent is one of the traditional foundations of peacekeeping.

The parties’ consent helps distinguish peacekeeping from coercive enforcement.

However, the nature and scope of consent can vary depending upon:

• the conflict;
• the peace agreement;
• the Security Council mandate;
• developments on the ground.

Loss or withdrawal of consent can create serious legal and operational difficulties.

Impartiality

Peacekeepers are expected to remain impartial in implementing their mandate.

Impartiality means that the UN should not become an instrument of one party to the conflict.

However:

Impartiality ≠ neutrality toward violations

If the Security Council gives peacekeepers a mandate to protect civilians or implement a peace agreement, the mission may need to take action against actors who obstruct that mandate.

Non-Use of Force

Traditional peacekeeping is based on limited use of force.

The classical approach is:

No force

except

Self-defence

or

defence of the mandate, where authorised.

Modern missions may have broader mandates allowing force in specified circumstances.

Robust Peacekeeping

Modern UN operations can receive stronger mandates.

A mission may be authorised to use all necessary means in defined circumstances, such as:

• protecting civilians;
• preventing attacks;
• defending the mandate;
• supporting implementation of peace agreements.

This is sometimes described as robust peacekeeping.

Robust peacekeeping must still be distinguished from full-scale Chapter VII enforcement.

Peacekeeping vs Peace Enforcement

Peacekeeping

Generally:

• relies on consent, particularly in traditional operations;
• emphasises impartiality;
• uses limited force;
• supports political settlement.

Peace Enforcement

Generally:

• does not necessarily require consent of all parties;
• involves coercive measures;
• may involve significant military force;
• is associated more directly with Chapter VII enforcement authority.

Peacekeeping vs Peacemaking

Peacekeeping

Helps maintain conditions for peace.

Peacemaking

Diplomatic efforts aimed at negotiating an end to conflict.

Examples include:

• negotiation;
• mediation;
• good offices;
• conciliation.

Therefore:

Peacemaking → Reach a peace agreement

Peacekeeping → Help maintain/implement peace

Peacekeeping vs Peacebuilding

Peacekeeping

Primarily focuses on preventing renewed conflict and maintaining peace.

Peacebuilding

Addresses the underlying conditions necessary for lasting peace.

It may involve:

• institution-building;
• governance;
• rule of law;
• economic recovery;
• reconciliation;
• disarmament;
• reintegration.

Modern UN missions frequently combine peacekeeping and peacebuilding functions.

Types of Peacekeeping Personnel

A UN peacekeeping operation may include:

Military Personnel

They may:

• monitor ceasefires;
• patrol;
• protect designated areas;
• support security arrangements.

Police Personnel

They may:

• support local policing;
• maintain public security;
• assist institutional reform;
• protect civilians.

Civilian Personnel

They may work on:

• political affairs;
• human rights;
• elections;
• rule of law;
• humanitarian coordination;
• public administration;
• communications.

Structure of a Peacekeeping Mission

A typical mission may involve:

Security Council

↓

Mandate

↓

Secretary-General / UN Secretariat

↓

Mission Leadership

↓

Military + Police + Civilian Components

↓

Implementation of Mandate

Security Council and Peacekeeping

The Security Council normally establishes or authorises UN peacekeeping operations.

It determines:

• the mission’s mandate;
• geographical scope;
• duration;
• authorised personnel;
• functions;
• reporting requirements.

The Council may subsequently:

• renew the mandate;
• modify it;
• expand it;
• reduce it;
• terminate it.

General Assembly and Peacekeeping

The General Assembly has an important financial role.

It approves the UN’s budgetary arrangements and participates in determining the financial framework for peacekeeping operations.

Thus:

Security Council → Mandate

General Assembly → Budgetary role

Secretary-General

The Secretary-General plays a major administrative and political role in peacekeeping.

Functions include:

• implementing Security Council mandates;
• appointing mission leadership;
• reporting to the Security Council;
• diplomatic engagement;
• good offices;
• mediation;
• coordinating UN personnel.

Financing of Peacekeeping

UN peacekeeping operations are financed through contributions from UN Member States under arrangements established by the organisation.

Peacekeeping therefore involves significant financial commitments.

Questions concerning:

• assessment of contributions;
• allocation of costs;
• authority for expenditure

have been important in the constitutional development of the UN.

Certain Expenses of the United Nations

Certain Expenses of the United Nations (1962)

The ICJ considered whether expenditures connected with UN operations constituted expenses of the organisation.

The case is important for understanding:

• powers of UN organs;
• financial authority;
• peacekeeping-related expenditure;
• implied powers.

The Court recognised that the UN could incur expenses necessary for carrying out its functions.

Legal Status of Peacekeepers

Peacekeeping personnel operate under a combination of:

• UN legal framework;
• status-of-forces arrangements;
• applicable international law;
• domestic law of host States, subject to applicable immunities and agreements.

Their exact legal protections depend upon the relevant mission and applicable legal instruments.

Privileges and Immunities

UN peacekeeping personnel may enjoy privileges and immunities necessary for the independent performance of their functions.

These protections are governed by the relevant:

• UN conventions;
• status-of-forces agreements;
• Security Council mandates;
• applicable international law.

Status-of-Forces Agreement

A Status-of-Forces Agreement (SOFA) generally establishes the legal position of a peacekeeping force in the host State.

It may address:

• jurisdiction;
• entry and exit;
• movement;
• privileges and immunities;
• weapons;
• communications;
• taxation;
• local cooperation.

Peacekeeping and International Humanitarian Law

Where peacekeeping personnel become involved in situations amounting to armed conflict, questions concerning international humanitarian law (IHL) may arise.

The exact application depends upon:

• the nature of the conflict;
• the conduct of the mission;
• the applicable legal framework.

Peacekeeping forces do not automatically become parties to every armed conflict merely because they are deployed in a conflict-affected State.

Protection of Civilians

Modern UN peacekeeping operations frequently receive mandates to protect civilians under threat of physical violence.

This represents a major development from traditional ceasefire-monitoring missions.

A protection-of-civilians mandate may require peacekeepers to use force within the limits of their mandate.

Protection of Children

Modern peacekeeping missions may also assist in:

• protection of children;
• monitoring grave violations against children;
• supporting child-protection mechanisms;
• demobilisation and reintegration of child soldiers.

Women, Peace and Security

UN peacekeeping is also connected with the Women, Peace and Security agenda.

Peacekeeping missions may:

• promote women’s participation in peace processes;
• address conflict-related sexual violence;
• support protection mechanisms;
• promote implementation of relevant Security Council resolutions.

Disarmament, Demobilisation and Reintegration

Peacekeeping missions may assist with DDR:

Disarmament

↓

Demobilisation

↓

Reintegration

The objective is to help former combatants transition from armed conflict into peaceful civilian life or legitimate security institutions.

Rule of Law

Modern missions may assist with:

• judicial institutions;
• police reform;
• legal institutions;
• correctional systems;
• human rights protection.

This supports long-term peacebuilding.

Elections

Some UN missions have electoral responsibilities such as:

• assisting election authorities;
• monitoring electoral processes;
• providing technical assistance;
• supporting political participation.

The precise function depends on the mission’s mandate.

Human Rights

Human rights components are common in modern UN peacekeeping.

They may:

• monitor violations;
• document abuses;
• support national institutions;
• assist victims;
• report to UN bodies.

Peacekeeping and State Sovereignty

Peacekeeping creates an important balance between:

State sovereignty

and

international peace and security.

Because peacekeeping is normally conducted with host-State consent, it can operate while respecting territorial sovereignty.

However, where a mission receives a stronger mandate, tensions may arise between the host State’s preferences and the mission’s international mandate.

Peacekeeping and Article 2(7)

Article 2(7) protects matters essentially within the domestic jurisdiction of States, subject to the Charter’s enforcement framework.

Peacekeeping operations authorised by competent UN organs therefore need to be understood within the Charter’s broader framework.

Peacekeeping and Article 103

Article 103 provides that Charter obligations prevail over conflicting obligations under other international agreements.

This may become relevant where a State’s obligations concerning a UN operation conflict with another treaty obligation.

Peacekeeping and Article 25

Article 25 requires Members to accept and carry out Security Council decisions in accordance with the Charter.

This is important where a peacekeeping operation is established through a Security Council decision.

Peacekeeping and Regional Organisations

The UN may cooperate with regional organisations in peace operations.

Examples include cooperation involving:

• African Union;
• European regional institutions;
• other regional organisations.

Chapter VIII provides the Charter framework for regional arrangements.

Major UN Peacekeeping Operations

Some historically important missions include:

UNTSO

United Nations Truce Supervision Organization

Established in 1948.

It remains one of the longest-running UN peacekeeping missions.

UNEF I

Established during the Suez Crisis in 1956.

It was an important early peacekeeping force.

UNFICYP

United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus

Established in 1964 to help prevent further fighting between communities and contribute to the maintenance of peace.

UNIFIL

United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon

Established in 1978 and later significantly expanded following the 2006 conflict.

UNPROFOR

United Nations Protection Force

Operated during the conflicts in the former Yugoslavia in the 1990s.

Its experience demonstrated the severe difficulties that can arise when peacekeeping mandates are insufficiently matched to the realities of armed conflict.

UNAMIR

United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda

Established in 1993.

Its failure to prevent the 1994 Rwandan genocide became one of the most serious criticisms of the international community’s response to mass atrocities.

MONUSCO

The UN mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo developed from earlier operations and has had a broad mandate including civilian protection and support for stabilisation.

Rwandan Genocide and Peacekeeping

The Rwanda experience of 1994 is particularly important in understanding the limitations of peacekeeping.

The UN mission lacked the mandate, resources and political support necessary to prevent the genocide.

The tragedy led to major reflection on:

• protection of civilians;
• mandate design;
• early warning;
• international responsibility;
• peacekeeping reform.

Srebrenica

The Srebrenica massacre of 1995 also highlighted serious limitations in the international peacekeeping system.

A designated UN “safe area” was unable to prevent the massacre.

The episode demonstrated that:

Safe Area designation

≠

Guaranteed military protection

unless the mission possesses the mandate, resources and capacity necessary to provide it.

Peacekeeping Failures

Peacekeeping missions can fail because of:

• inadequate mandates;
• insufficient troops;
• insufficient resources;
• lack of political support;
• unclear rules of engagement;
• withdrawal of party consent;
• difficult terrain;
• complex armed groups;
• lack of cooperation by parties.

Modern Challenges

Complex Civil Wars

Modern conflicts may involve:

• multiple armed groups;
• extremist organisations;
• criminal networks;
• fragmented political authority.

Traditional peacekeeping models may not easily fit such conflicts.

Protection of Civilians

Expectations may exceed the actual capabilities of a mission.

Mandate-Capability Gap

A mission may receive a broad mandate without receiving sufficient:

• personnel;
• equipment;
• intelligence;
• logistical capacity.

Host-State Consent

A government may formally consent but later restrict the mission’s operations.

Accountability

Questions can arise concerning misconduct by peacekeeping personnel.

Sexual Exploitation and Abuse

Misconduct by UN personnel has been a major institutional concern.

The UN has developed policies concerning:

• prevention;
• reporting;
• investigation;
• accountability;
• victim assistance.

Responsibility may involve both the UN and the contributing State depending on the circumstances and applicable legal framework.

Peacekeeping and State Responsibility

A complex legal issue is whether conduct of peacekeepers is attributable to:

• the United Nations;
• a troop-contributing State;
• both in certain circumstances.

The answer depends upon the applicable rules of attribution and effective control, rather than simply the nationality of the personnel.

International Responsibility of the UN

Where conduct is attributable to the UN and constitutes a breach of an international obligation, questions of the UN’s international responsibility may arise.

The ILC Articles on the Responsibility of International Organizations (ARIO) provide an important framework.

Peacekeeping and the UN Collective Security System

Peacekeeping forms part of the broader UN peace-and-security system.

Collective Security

Security Council

↓

Threat to peace

↓

Collective response

Peacekeeping may provide the operational presence necessary to:

• monitor;
• stabilise;
• protect;
• implement.

It is therefore one instrument within the broader UN peace and security architecture.

Peacekeeping vs Collective Security

Collective security is the broader system.

Peacekeeping is one practical instrument used within that system.

Therefore:

Collective Security

→ Broad institutional framework

Peacekeeping

→ Operational mechanism supporting peace

Peacekeeping vs Sanctions

Sanctions

Economic/diplomatic pressure under relevant Security Council authority.

Peacekeeping

Deployment of international personnel to support peace.

They may sometimes operate simultaneously.

Peacekeeping vs Enforcement

Peacekeeping	Enforcement
Usually consent-based	Consent not necessarily required
Traditionally impartial	Coercive
Limited use of force	May involve significant force
Supports political settlement	Compels compliance
Developed through practice	Primarily grounded in Chapter VII
Peace maintenance	Peace enforcement

Advantages of Peacekeeping

Prevents Escalation

International presence can reduce the risk of renewed fighting.

Supports Peace Agreements

Peacekeepers can monitor and support implementation.

Protects Civilians

Where mandated and capable, missions can protect vulnerable populations.

Facilitates Political Processes

Peacekeeping creates space for:

• negotiations;
• elections;
• institution-building.

International Legitimacy

UN authorisation provides a broadly accepted international framework.

Limitations

Dependence on Member States

The UN depends on States for:

• troops;
• police;
• financing;
• equipment.

Political Constraints

Security Council politics can shape mandates.

Veto

Permanent members can influence whether and how the Council acts.

Mandate Limitations

Peacekeepers can only act within their mandate.

Operational Challenges

Large and complex conflicts may exceed the capabilities of a mission.

Important Legal Authorities

Certain Expenses of the United Nations (1962)

Important for:

• UN powers;
• peacekeeping expenditure;
• implied powers.

Legal Consequences for States of the Continued Presence of South Africa in Namibia (1971)

Important for:

• Security Council authority;
• legal consequences of UN decisions;
• obligations of States concerning an unlawful international situation.

Nicaragua v United States (1986)

Important for:

• use of force;
• collective self-defence;
• non-intervention.

It provides broader context for distinguishing peacekeeping from unilateral military action.

Behrami and Saramati

The European Court of Human Rights considered attribution issues concerning conduct connected with international peace and security operations.

The cases are important for studying:

• international organisations;
• attribution;
• responsibility;
• UN-authorised operations.

Al-Jedda

The European Court of Human Rights considered the relationship between:

• Security Council obligations;
• detention;
• human rights.

It is relevant to questions concerning the implementation of international peace-and-security mandates and fundamental rights.

Peacekeeping Principles Flowchart

UN Peacekeeping

↓

Consent of Parties

Impartiality

Limited Use of Force

↓

Implementation of Mandate

↓

Political Settlement

↓

Sustainable Peace

Modern Peacekeeping Flowchart

Conflict

↓

Security Council Assessment

↓

Mandate

↓

Peacekeeping Mission

↙︎ ↓ ↓ ↘︎

Military
Police
Civilian
Political

↓

Protection + Monitoring + Stabilisation

↓

Peace Process

↓

Peacebuilding

Peacekeeping Mandate Flowchart

Security Council Resolution

↓

Mission Mandate

↓

Rules of Engagement

↓

Deployment

↓

Implementation

↓

Reporting

↓

Mandate Renewal / Modification / Termination

Quick Revision

• UN peacekeeping is an important instrument for maintaining international peace and security.
• It is not expressly provided for under a separate chapter of the UN Charter.
• It developed through UN practice.
• Article 24 provides the Security Council’s primary responsibility for international peace and security.
• Article 25 concerns implementation of Security Council decisions.
• Chapter VI provides the peaceful-settlement framework.
• Chapter VII provides the enforcement framework.
• Traditional peacekeeping is associated with:
  • consent;
  • impartiality;
  • non-use of force except self-defence and defence of the mandate.
• The term “Chapter VI½” is informal and not a Charter provision.
• Robust peacekeeping may involve broader authority to use force under a Security Council mandate.
• Peacekeeping is different from peace enforcement.
• Peacekeeping is also different from peacemaking and peacebuilding.
• The Security Council normally establishes or authorises peacekeeping mandates.
• The General Assembly has an important budgetary role.
• The Secretary-General plays a major administrative and diplomatic role.
• SOFAs establish important legal arrangements between the mission and host State.
• Modern missions may protect civilians and support:
  • elections;
  • human rights;
  • rule of law;
  • DDR;
  • political transitions.
• UNTSO was established in 1948 and remains a historically important mission.
• UNEF I was established during the Suez Crisis in 1956.
• UNAMIR is important in studying the failure of peacekeeping during the 1994 Rwandan genocide.
• Srebrenica demonstrates the consequences of inadequate mandate and capacity.
• Peacekeeping depends heavily on Member States for personnel and resources.
• Peacekeeping missions may face problems involving:
  • unclear mandates;
  • insufficient resources;
  • political constraints;
  • host-State resistance;
  • complex armed groups.
• Certain Expenses of the United Nations (1962) is important for UN powers and peacekeeping expenditure.
• Behrami and Saramati are relevant to attribution of conduct connected with international peace operations.
• Al-Jedda is relevant to Security Council mandates and human rights.
• Peacekeeping is an instrument of the broader UN collective-security system, not the same thing as collective security itself.

Key Exam Points

UN Peacekeeping → Developed through UN practice

No separate “Peacekeeping Chapter” in UN Charter

Article 24 → Security Council primary responsibility

Article 25 → Members carry out Security Council decisions

Chapter VI → Peaceful settlement

Chapter VII → Enforcement

Traditional principles → Consent + Impartiality + Limited Force

“Chapter VI½” → Informal expression

Security Council → Mandate

General Assembly → Important budgetary role

Secretary-General → Administration + Diplomacy

SOFA → Legal status in host State

UNTSO → 1948

UNEF I → 1956

UNAMIR → Rwanda

Srebrenica → Limits of peacekeeping

Certain Expenses → UN powers + expenditure

Behrami/Saramati → Attribution

Al-Jedda → UN mandate + human rights

Peacekeeping ≠ Peace Enforcement

Peacekeeping ≠ Peacemaking

Peacekeeping ≠ Peacebuilding

One-Line Memory Trick

“CAP”

C → Consent

A → Impartiality

P → Limited use of force / Protection according to mandate

For the legal framework:

24 → Security Council

25 → Compliance

VI → Peaceful Settlement

VII → Enforcement

Conclusion

UN Peacekeeping Operations are one of the most significant institutional innovations of the United Nations. Although the UN Charter does not expressly establish a separate legal chapter dealing with peacekeeping, the practice developed as a practical means of maintaining and restoring international peace and security.

Traditional peacekeeping rests on the principles of consent, impartiality and limited use of force, while modern operations have developed broader mandates, including civilian protection, electoral assistance, human rights monitoring, disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration, and support for political transitions.

The Security Council normally determines the mandate of a peacekeeping operation, while the General Assembly plays an important financial role and the Secretary-General provides administrative and diplomatic leadership.

Peacekeeping must be carefully distinguished from peace enforcement. Traditional peacekeeping seeks to maintain or implement peace with limited force, whereas enforcement operations may involve coercive action under Chapter VII.

The history of missions such as UNTSO, UNEF I, UNAMIR and operations in the former Yugoslavia demonstrates both the value and the limitations of the system. Peacekeeping can help create conditions for peace, but its effectiveness depends on a realistic mandate, adequate resources, political support and cooperation from the parties.

For examinations, remember:

UN Peacekeeping → UN practice

Traditional Principles → Consent + Impartiality + Limited Force

Article 24 → Security Council

Article 25 → Member-State compliance

Chapter VI → Peaceful Settlement

Chapter VII → Enforcement

Security Council → Mandate

General Assembly → Finance

Secretary-General → Administration + Diplomacy

UNTSO → 1948

UNEF I → 1956

UNAMIR → Rwanda

Certain Expenses → UN powers and expenditure

Peacekeeping ≠ Enforcement